Introduction to A+P 1

Introduction to A+P 1

Terms and Nomenclature

Anatomy

Physiology

Gross, or macroscopic, Anatomy

Systemic Anatomy

Surface Anatomy

Microscopic Anatomy

Cytology

Histology

Developmental Anatomy

Embryology

Pathological Anatomy

Radiographic Anatomy

Renal Physiology

Neurophysiology

Cardiovascular physiology

Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function 

      

Biochemistry

Biochemistry

Terms and Nomenclature

Biochemistry

Organic Componds

Inorganic Compounds

Properties of Water

                High Heat Capacity

                High Heat of Vaporization

                Polar Solvent Properties 

                                       Universal Solvent

                                       Hydration Layers

                Reactivity

                                       Hydrolysis Reactions

                                       Dehydration Synthesis

                Cushioning 

Salt

Electrolytes

Acids

Hydrogen Ions

Proton Donors

Bases

Proton Acceptors

Hydroxyl Ions

Bicarbonate Ion

Ammonia

pH units

Properties of pH

Neutralization

Neutralization Reaction

Buffers

Strong Acids

Weak Acids

Strong Bases

Weak Bases

Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system

Electroneutral

Monors

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharide

Disaccharide

Polysaccharide

Isomers

Carbohydrate Functions

Lipids

Triglycerides (neutral fats)

fatty acids

glycerol

Saturated

unsaturated

monounsaturated 

Polyunsaturated

Trans Fats

omeg-3 fatty acids

Phospholipids

Steroids

Cholesterol

Eicosanoids

Protein

Amino Acids

Amine group

Acid Group

R Group

peptide Bond

Dipeptide 

Tripeptide

Polypeptide

macromolecules

Primary Structure of protein

Secondary Structure of protein

alph-helix 

beta-pleated sheet

Tertiary structure 

Quaternary structure 

Fibrous proteins

Structural proteins

Globular proteins

Functional proteins

Protein Denaturation

Denatured

Active Sites

Molecular Chaperones

Enzymes

Holoenzyme

apoenzyme

cofactor

coenzyme

substrate

Hydrolases

Oxidases

-ase

Activation Energy 

Nucleic Acids

DNA

RNA
nucleotides

adenine

guanine

cytosine

thymine

uracil

Double helix

complementary bases

adenosine triphosphate

Structure of Adenosine Triphosphate

Basic Chemistry

Basic Chemistry 

Terms and Nomenclature

Matter

Mass

States of Matter

Energy

Kinetic Energy

Potential Energy

Chemical Energy

Electrical Energy

Mechanical Energy

Radiant or Electromagnetic Energy 

Elements

Atoms

Atomic Symbol

Nucleus

Protons

Neutrons

Atomic Mass Unit

Electrons

Orbitals

Orbital Model

Planetary Model

Electron Cloud

Atomic Number

Mass Number

Isotopes

Atomic Weight

Radioisotopes

Half-Life

Molecule

Compound

Mixtures

Solutions

Sovent

Solute

Concentration

Percent

Molarity

Mole

Molecular Weight

Avogadro's Number

Colloids

Sol-Gel Transformations

Suspensions

Heterogeneous

Homogeneous

Chemical Bonds

Electron Shells

Energy Level

Valence Shell

Octet Rule/ Rule of Eights

Ionic Bonds

Ions

anion

cation

Covalent bonds

H-Bonds

Nonpolar Molecules

Polar Molecules

Electronegativity

Electropositive

Dipole

Surface Tension

Intramolecular Bonds

Chemical Reactions

Chemical Equations

Reactants

Products

Molecular formula

Synthesis (Combination) Reaction 

Anabolic

Decomposition Reaction

Catabolic

Exchange (displacement) reactions

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox Reactions)

Oxidized

Exergonic Reactions

Endergonic Reactions

Chemical Equilibrium

Net Change

Factors Influencing the Rate of Chemical Reactions 

             Temperature

             Concentration

             Particle Size

             Catalysts

Catalysts

Levels of Structural Organization

Levels of Structural Organization

Terms and Nomenclature

Chemical Level: Simplest Level of the Structural Organization. Made up of atoms and molecules.

Organelles: Basic Components of the microscopic cells.

Cells: Smallest units of living things.

Cellular Level: Second Level of the Structural Organization. Made up of Cells.

Tissue Level: Third Level of the Structural Organization. Made up of Tissues (Four basic types: epithelium, muscle, connective tissue, and nervous tissue).

Tissues: groups of similar cells that have a common function.

Organ: Discrete structure composed of at least two tissue types (four is more common) that perform a specific function for the body.

Organ Level: Fourth Level of the Structural Organization. Made up of Organs and performs extremely complex functions.

Organ System Level: Fifth Level of the Structural Organization. Made up of multiple organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose. These are the "Organ Systems."

Organismal Level: Highest Level of Structural Organization. Represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive.

Diagrams and Images

Necessary Life Functions

Necessary Life Functions in Humans

Terms and Nomenclature

Maintaining Boundaries:  Humans must maintain boundaries so that the internal environment remains distinct from the external environment surrounding them. In single celled organisms, the external boundary is a limiting membrane that encloses its contents and lets in needed substances while restricting entry of potentially damaging or unnecessary substances. 

                Integumentary System  maintains boundaries in humans by adding protective

                layer of membrane (skin) around internal organs that fends out bacteria and 

                keeps damaging effects of heat, sunlight, and chemicals in the external 

                environment.

Movement: Activities promoted by the muscular system and allows humans to manipulate the external environment. Occurs in cardiovascular, digestive, and urinary systems.
                Contractility: On the cellular level, this is the muscle's ability to move by
                                     shortening.
Responsiveness or Excitability: ability to sense changes (which serve as stimuli) in the environment and then respond to them. Occurs most notably in the nervous system.
Digestion: Breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood. The nutrient-rich blood is then distributed to all body cells by the cardiovascular system. In Humans, this occurs primarily in the Digestion system.
Metabolism: Broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells. It includes breaking down substances into their simpler building blocks, synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances, and using nutrients and oxygen to produce ATP. Occurs in Digestive and Respiratory Systems and is regulated by the Endocrine System Glands.
                catabolism: Breaking down of substances into simpler building blocks.
                anaboloism: Synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler
                                   substances.
                cellular respiration: Using nutrients and oxygen to produce ATP.
Excretion: Process of removing wastes from the body produced during digestion and metabolism. Common wastes removed from the body include indigestible food residues in feces, nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes in urine, and carbon-dioxide (by-product of cellular respiration).
Reproduction: Occurs at the cellular and the organismal levels. In cellular reproduction, the original cell divides, producing two identical daughter cells that may then be used for body growth or repair. Reproduction of the human organism, or making of a whole new person, is the major task of the reproductive system.
Growth: Increase in size of a body part or the organism as a whole. It is usually accomplished by increasing the number of cells. However, individual cells also increase in size when not dividing. For true growth to occur, constructive activities must occur at a faster rate than destructive ones.  

Human Survival Needs

Human Survival Needs

Terms and Nomenclature

Survival Needs: Factors that the human body and the environment need to have inorder to sustain life. They include nutrients, oxygen, water, and appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure.

Nutrients: These are taken via the diet and contain chemical substances used for energy and cell building. Most plant-derived foods are rich in carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals, whereas most animal foods are richer in protein and fats. 

               Carbohydrates: major energy fuel source for body cells.

               Proteins (and fats): essential sources for building cell structures.

               Fats: provide reserve of energy-rich fuel.

               Minerals and Vitamins: required in chemical interactions that go on in cells and 

               for oxygen transport in the blood.   

Oxygen: Required in all nutrients. Because the chemical reactions that release energy from foods are oxidative reactions that require oxygen, human cells can survive for only a few minutes without oxygen. 20% of air is made up of Oxygen.

Water: Accounts for 60-80% of human body weight and is the single most abundant chemical substance in the body. Provides necessary environment for chemical reactions and fluid base for body secretions and excretions.

Normal Body Temperature: Required temperature to sustain life-sustaining chemical reactions. Usually 37 Celsius and 98.6 F. The lower the temperature, the slower the metabolic reactions. The higher the temperature, the higher the metabolic reactions (causing proteins to lose shape and functions). 

Appropriate Atmospheric Pressure: force that air exerts on the surface of the body. Breathing and gas exchange in the lungs depend on appropriate atmospheric pressure. At high altitudes, where atmospheric pressure is lower and the air is thin, gas exchange may be inadequate to support cellular metabolism. 

Homeostatis

 Homeostatis and the Human Body 

Terms and Nomenclature  

Homeostatis: The ability of the human body to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously. (Literal translation: "unchanging")

Dynamic State of Equilibrium: Balance in which the internal conditions vary, but always within relatively narrow limits.

Homeostatic Control System: Entire system of communication that helps the body maintain a dynamic state of equilibrium and, ultimately, homeostatis.

Variable: This is the term for the factor or event that is regulated during homeostatis.

Receptor: First component of the homeostatic control system that senses/monitors the environment and responds to changes by sending information to the control center.

Stimuli: Changes in the environment that the Receptor responds too.

Afferent Pathway: Input signals and Information travel through this pathway between the Receptor and the Control System during homeostatis.

Control Center: Second component of homeostatis that receives input from the Receptor (via the Afferent Pathway) and decides both the set point and appropriate response or course of action. It then sends information to the Effector (via the Efferent Pathway).

Efferent Pathway: Output Signals and Information travel through this pathway between the Control System and the Effector during homeostatis.

Set Point: Level or range at which a variable is to be maintained. This is set in the control center of the homeostatic control mechanism.

Effector: Third component of homeostatis that receives output from the Control Center and provides the means for the control center's response to the stimulus. 

Feed back: Results of the Response to influence the effect of the stimulus by either reducing it so that the whole control process is shut off, or enhancing it so that the whole process continues at an even faster rate. 

Negative Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback that reduces the effect of the stimulus so that the whole control process is shut off or has a reduced intensity. These mechanisms cause the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning it to its "ideal" value.

Positive Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback that enhances the effect of the stimulus so that the response is accelerated. The change that results proceeds in the same direction as the initial change, causing the variable to deviate further and further from its original value or range. 

Often referred  to as Cascades.

Homeostatic Imbalance: The resulting disturbance of the homeostasis that is most often labeled as a disease. Occurs when the body's control systems become less and less stable, negative feedback mechanisms are overwhelmed and positive feedback mechanisms take over.

Images and Diagrams

Body's Organ Systems and Functions

Body's Organ Systems and Major Functions

Terms and Nomenclature

Integumentary System: Form the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure. etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.

Consists of the Hair, Skin and Nails.

Skeletal System: Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood Cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.

Consists of Bones and Joints.

Muscular System: Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produced heat.

Consists of Skeletal Muscles.

Nervous System: As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.

Consists of Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves.

 

Endocrine System: Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

Consists of Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland, Testis, Ovary, Pancreas, Adrenal Gland, Thymus, and Thyroid Gland.

Cardiovascular System: Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.

Consists of Heart and Blood Vessels.

Lymphatic System/ Immunity: Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.

Consists of Red Bone Marrow, Thymus, Lymphatic Vessels, Thoracic Duct, Spleen, Lymph Nodes.

Respiratory System: Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.

Consists of Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Lung, and Bronchus.

Digestive System: Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.

Consists of Oral Cavity, Esophagus, Large Intestine, Liver, Stomach, Small Intestine, Rectum, and Anus.

Urinary System:Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

Consists of Kidney, Ureter, Urinary Bladder,  and Urethra.

Male Reproductive System: Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.

Consists of Penis, Testis, Scrotum, Ductus Deferens, Prostate Gland.

Female Reproductive System:Overall function is production of offspring. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.

Consists of Vagina, Uterus, Uterine Tube, Ovary, Mammary Glands (in Breasts).

Images and Diagrams

Serous Membranes

Serous Membranes

Terms and Nomenclature

Parietal Serosa: Part of Serous Membrane that lines the cavity walls.

Visceral Serosa: Part of Serous Membrane that covers the organs in a cavity.

Parietal Pericardium: Serous Membrane that lines the pericaridal cavity.

Visceral Pericardium: Serous Membrane that covers the heart.

Parietal Pleurae: Serous Membrane that lines the walls of the thoracic cavity.

Visceral Pleurae: Serous Membrane that covers the lungs.

Parietal Peritoneum: Serous Membrane that lines the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity.

Visceral Peritoneum: Serous Membrane that covers most organs in the abdominopelvic cavity. 

Diagrams and Images

Nine Abdominopelvic Regions

Nine Abdominopelvic Regions

Terms and Nomenclature 

Umbilical Region: Centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel).

Epigastric Region: Located Superior to the Umbilical Region 

(epi=upon, above; gastri=belli)

Hypogastric Region: Located Inferior to the Umbilical Region

(hypo=below)

Right Iliac Region: Located Lateral to the Hypogastric Region 

(iliac= superior part of hip bone)

Left Iliac Region: Located Lateral to the Hypogastric Region 

(iliac= superior part of hip bone)

Right Lumbar Region: Located Lateral to the Umbilical Region 

(lumbus= loin)

Left Lumbar Region: Located Lateral to the Umbilical Region 

(lumbus= loin)

Right Hypochondriac Region: Located Lateral to the Epigastric Region and Deep to the ribs (chondro=cartilage)      

Left Hypochondriac Region: Located Lateral to the Epigastric Region and Deep to the ribs (chondro=cartilage)

Images and Diagrams

Four Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Four Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Terms and Nomenclature

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

Images and Diagrams

Dorsal/Ventral Body Cavities

Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities

 

Terms and Nomenclature

Dorsal Body Cavity: Body Cavity that contains the Cranial and Vertebral Cavities.

                                  (aka the spinal cord/brain)

Cranial Cavity: Cavity that contains the brain.

Vertebral Cavity: Cavity that contains the spinal cord.

Thoracic Cavity: Cavity that contains the heart, lungs, superior mediastinum, pleural cavity, pericardial cavity within the mediastinum.

Abdominal Cavity: Cavity that contains digestive viscera.

Pelvic Cavity: Cavity that contains the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum.

Abdominopelvic Cavity: Cavity that contains the Abdominal and Pelvic Cavities.

 

Ventral Body Cavity: Body Cavity that contains the thoracic and abdomininopelvic cavities.

Diaphragm: Separates the Thoracic cavity from the Abdominal Cavity.

Diagrams and Images

 

 

 

Surface Regions Part 1

Surface Regional Terms 

Part 1

Terms and Nomenclature

Cephalic: Overall Head Region

Frontal: Forehead Region

Orbital: Eye Region

Buccal: Cheek Region

Nasal: Nose Region

Oral: Mouth Region

Mental: Chin Region

Otic: Ear Region

Occipital: Back of the Head Region

Cervical: Neck Region

Thoracic: Overall Chest Region

Sternal: Sternum Region

Axillary: Underarm/Armpit Region

Mammary: Breast/Nipple Regions

Abdominal: Overall Stomach Region

Umbilical: Belly Button Region

Pelvic: Overall Waist/Belt/Bellow Belt Region

Inguinal: Groin Region

Pubic: Genital Region

Back (dorsal): Overall Back Region

Scapular: Shoulder Blade Regions

Vertebral: Spinal Cord Region

Lumbar: Lower Back Region

Sacral: Between the Buttocks Region

Gluteal: Buttocks Region

Perineal: Between the Anus and External Genitalia Region

Diagrams/ Images 

Anatomical Position and Directions

Anatomical Position and Directional Terms

Terms and Nomenclature

Anatomical Position: Standard Body Position. Body Erect/ Feet Slightly Apart/ Palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away from the body.

Superior: Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above.

Inferior: Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below.

Anterior or Ventral: Toward or at the front of the body; in front of.

Posterior or Dorsal: Toward or at the back of the body; behind.

Medial: Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of.

Lateral: Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of.

Superficial: Toward or at the body surface.

Deep: Away from the body surface; more internal.

Proximal: Closer in the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.

*Refers to the appendages only

Distal: Farther from the origin of a body part of the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. *Refers to the appendages only

Volar: Palmar surface of the hand/plantar surface of the foot.

Dorsum: Top of the hands/feet

Afferent: Going Towards.

Efferent: Going away from.

Axial Part: Trunk- head, neck, and torso

Appendicular Part: Appendages or Limbs

Diagrams/ Illustrations/ and Images